Main Ref. | Langton, R.W. and R.E. Bowman, 1981 |
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Remarks | It is preyed upon by cod and bluefish (Pomatosus saltatrix). Parasites of the species include 3 protozoans, 15 trematodes, 5 cestodes, 6 nematodes and 2 acanthocephalans (Ref. 5951). |
Marine - Neritic | Marine - Oceanic | Brackishwater | Freshwater | |
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Marine zones / Brackish and freshwater bodies |
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Substrate | Soft Bottom |
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Substrate Ref. | |
Special habitats | |
Special habitats Ref. |
Ref. | |
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Associations | schooling; |
Associated with | |
Association remarks | Benthic predators (Ref. 42354). Tagging experiments show adult seasonal migration for considerable distances. Identified migratory population groups that generally do not inter-mingle based on study of associated parasites. Pelagic eggs and larvae with diurnal vertical movements, ascending near the surface at sunset and descending to 20 m at sunrise; with larger larvae making longer migrations; possibly assists in larval dispersal as surface water circulation transports larvae further (Ref. 86779). |
Parasitism |
Feeding type | mainly animals (troph. 2.8 and up) |
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Feeding type Ref. | Langton, R.W. and R.E. Bowman, 1981 |
Feeding habit | hunting macrofauna (predator) |
Feeding habit Ref. | Langton, R.W. and R.E. Bowman, 1981 |
Estimation method | Original sample | Unfished population | Remark | ||
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Troph | s.e. | Troph | s.e. | ||
From diet composition | 3.28 | 0.14 | 3.20 | 0.35 | Troph of juv./adults from 3 studies. |
From individual food items | 3.03 | 0.14 | Trophic level estimated from a number of food items using a randomized resampling routine. | ||
Ref. | Langton, R.W. and R.E. Bowman, 1981 |